Skip Navigation
Skip to contents

Clin Endosc : Clinical Endoscopy

Search
Advanced Search
OPEN ACCESS
mobile search button mobile menu button

Articles

Page Path
HOME > Clin Endosc > Volume 47(4); 2014 > Article
Review Management of Antithrombotic Therapy for Gastroenterological Endoscopy from a Cardio-Cerebrovascular Physician's Point of View
Hyung-Geun Oh
Clinical Endoscopy 2014;47(4):320-323.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5946/ce.2014.47.4.320
Published online: July 28, 2014

Department of Neurology, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Cheonan, Korea.

Correspondence: Hyung-Geun Oh. Department of Neurology, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, 31 Suncheonhyang 6-gil, Dongnam-gu, Cheonan 330-721, Korea. Tel: +82-41-570-3833, Fax: +82-41-579-9021, oh906@schmc.ac.kr
• Received: March 29, 2014   • Accepted: April 10, 2014

Copyright © 2014 Korean Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

  • 6,454 Views
  • 67 Download
  • 2 Web of Science
  • 1 Crossref
  • 3 Scopus
prev next
Full Article

Download PDF Download PDF

  • Periprocedural management of antithrombotics for gastroenterological endoscopy is a common clinical issue. To decide how to manage the use of antithrombotics in patients undergoing endoscopy, the risk for hemorrhage and thromboembolism during the procedure must be considered. For low-risk procedures, no adjustments in antithrombotics are needed. For high-risk procedures with a low thromboembolic risk, discontinuation of warfarin at 5 days, and clopidogrel at 5 to 7 days before the procedure has been recommended. However, it is better to continue aspirin use even during high-risk procedures. A heparin bridging therapy may be considered before endoscopy in patients with a high thromboembolic risk. The management of patients taking antithrombotics remains complex, especially in high-risk settings.
  • Keywords: Endoscopy; Antithrombotics; Hemorrhage; Thromboembolism
Over the past decade, there has been a widespread use of antithrombotics for ischemic strokes and cardiovascular diseases. Many gastroenterologists have had more chances to perform invasive endoscopic procedures on patients taking antithrombotics. Neurologists and cardiologists are also asked to recommend whether gastroenterologists should temporarily stop antithrombotics in patients with previous cerebrovascular diseases or coronary artery diseases during endoscopic procedures. The balance of risks for periprocedural hemorrhage with continuation of antithrombotics versus recurrent thromboembolic events with discontinuation is unclear. Especially, it is not an easy decision when patients with a high thromboembolic risk undergo high-risk endoscopic procedures.
Endoscopic procedures are usually classified into low and high risk according to their potential association with significant hemorrhage. The American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE) proposes that high-risk procedures are those with a rate of hemorrhage of ≥1.5% among patients not taking antithrombotics (Table 1).1,2,3
Diagnostic procedures including biopsy
Diagnostic esophagogastroduodenoscopy, colonoscopy, and sigmoidoscopy including biopsy are considered low-risk procedures. Therefore, regardless of risk for thromboembolic events, the continuous use of antithrombotics including aspirin, clopidogrel, and even warfarin is recommended.2,4
Colonoscopic polypectomy
Postpolypectomy bleeding is the most common complication of colonoscopic polypectomy, occurring in up to 7% of patients.5 Bleeding can occur immediately following polypectomy or be delayed up to 30 days. The ASGE considers colonoscopic polypectomy as a high-risk procedure and recommends stopping aspirin in patients with a low thromboembolic risk or continuing it in patients with a high thromboembolic risk. However, clopidogrel is to be stopped at 7 to 10 days before colonoscopic polypectomy, with aspirin replacement or continuation regardless of thromboembolic risk. The ASGE recommends stopping warfarin before colonoscopic polypectomy.2,4
Endoscopic mucosal resection or endoscopic submucosal dissection
Some patients experience delayed bleeding after endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) and endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD). The rate of post-ESD bleeding is reported to be 1.7% to 38%.6,7 A recently published guideline recommends stop of aspirin and all other antiplatelet agents before EMR or ESD, in patients with a low thromboembolic risk.4 However, there is no definitive guideline for patients with a high thromboembolic risk.
Periprocedural stroke risk is increased with discontinuation of antiplatelet medications and anticoagulants. The risk for thromboembolic event with discontinuation of warfarin is probably higher if warfarin is discontinued for ≥7 days (relative risk [RR], 5.5; 95% confidence interval, 1.2 to 24.2). Estimated risk for stroke varies with the duration of stopping aspirin; RR was 1.40 for 5 months, odds ratio was 3.4 for 4 weeks, and RR was 1.97 for 2 weeks.8
Atrial fibrillation, mechanical heart valve, or venous thromboembolism
In patients with atrial fibrillation, the CHADS2 score is a significant determinant of the risk for ischemic stroke9 (12.5 to 18.2 stroke rate per 100 patient-year in a score of 5 or 6). Risk for thromboembolic events in patients with mechanical heart valve such as mitral-valve prosthesis, caged-ball or tilting-disk aortic-valve prosthesis, multiple mechanical heart valve is very high (an annual-risk rate of ≥10%).10,11 Risk factors for recurrence in patients with venous thromboembolism are unprovoked venous thromboembolism, severe thrombophilia, active cancer, or venous thromboembolism within previous 3 months (Table 2).2,3 In patients with atrial fibrillation, a mechanical heart valve, or venous thromboembolism at a high thromboembolic risk, the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) suggests heparin bridging therapy during interruption of warfarin. However, in patients undergoing a low-risk procedure and taking warfarin, the ACCP suggests continuing warfarin during the procedure.12
Coronary stents
The American Heart Association guidelines recommend uninterrupted dual antiplatelet therapy for at least 1 year in patients with coronary drug-eluting stents.13 Premature stop of dual antiplatelet therapy may lead to stent thrombosis with a mortality rate of ≥50%.12,14,15 The risk for stent thrombosis is highest within 3 to 6 months after the placement of coronary drug-eluting stents.16
In patients receiving dual antiplatelet therapy after the placement of drug-eluting stents, when a high-risk procedure is needed, the ACCP recommends deferring the procedure for at least 6 months. However, if a high-risk procedure must be performed within 6 months, dual antiplatelet therapy should be continued. Even if it is difficult to continue dual antiplatelet therapy because of bleeding risk, the patients should take aspirin continuously. For patients undergoing a high-risk procedure after 6 months, continuous use of aspirin and discontinuation of clopidogrel at 5 to 7 days before the procedure is recommended.12
Heparin bridging therapy aims to minimize the risk for arterial thromboembolism or recurrent venous thrombosis in patients with atrial fibrillation, a mechanical heart valve, or venous thromboembolism. However, heparin bridging therapy is probably associated with an increased risk of periprocedural hemorrhage.
A therapeutic dosage is similar to that used for the treatment of venous thromboembolism (e.g., subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin such as enoxaparin 1 mg/kg twice a day or 1.5 mg/kg daily, intravenous unfractionated heparin [UFH] to attain an activated partial thromboplastin time [aPTT] 1.5 to 2 times the control aPTT).12 In patients receiving bridging therapy with therapeutic-dose UFH, the ACCP suggests stopping UFH 4 to 6 hours before the procedure. In patients receiving bridging therapy with therapeutic-dose enoxaparin, the ACCP suggests administering 50% of the total daily enoxaparin dose approximately 24 hours before the procedure.12
Most patients have an international normalized ratio of ≤1.5 approximately 5 days after stopping warfarin.17,18,19 In patients who require temporary discontinuation of warfarin, the ACCP recommends stopping warfarin approximately 5 days before the procedure and resuming warfarin approximately 12 to 24 hours after the procedure (evening or next morning) and when there is adequate hemostasis.
Cilostazol has known to have a less bleeding tendency. Antithrombotic effect of cilostazol tends to disappear roughly 2 days after discontinuation.20 For patients taking clopidogrel at a low risk for cardiocerebrovascular events, the ACCP suggests stopping clopidogrel 5 to 7 days before a high-risk procedure.12
The restart of antithrombotic therapy is a major determinant of the hemorrhagic risk after invasive procedures. In patients receiving heparin bridging therapy, heparin at a therapeutic dose should be withheld for 48 hours after the procedure. Aspirin or clopidogrel can be reinitiated within 24 hours after the procedure.

  • 1) Communication between patient and care providers, including the proceduralist.

  • 2) Advanced preprocedural planning to allow for medication adjustments and patient counseling.

  • 3) Assessment of the hemorrhagic risk during procedures if antithrombotics are continued.

  • 4) Assessment of the thromboembolic risk if antithrombotics are temporarily stopped.

  • 5) Involving patients in the decision making about anticoagulation interruption and bridging with risk for thromboembolism or hemorrhage, especially in areas of uncertainty.

  • 6) Avoiding premature discontinuation of dual antiplatelet therapy in patients with coronary stents.

  • 7) Conservative discontinuation and reinitiation of anticoagulation therapy to prevent postprocedural bleeding.21

Periprocedural management of antithrombotics depends on risk assessment for hemorrhage and thromboembolism. For patients taking antithrombotics for a long time, periprocedural management of antithrombotics for gastroenterological endoscopy needs to be individualized. It is best for the gastroenterologist to seek advice from the neurologist or cardiologist to assess the patient's risk for thromboembolism. The patients should know better than anyone about the risk and benefit of endoscopic procedures, and should be informed in advance of early signs of hemorrhage after the procedures.
  • 1. Eisen GM, Baron TH, Dominitz JA, et al. Guideline on the management of anticoagulation and antiplatelet therapy for endoscopic procedures. Gastrointest Endosc 2002;55:775–779.ArticlePubMed
  • 2. ASGE Standards of Practice Committee. Anderson MA, Ben-Menachem T, et al. Management of antithrombotic agents for endoscopic procedures. Gastrointest Endosc 2009;70:1060–1070.ArticlePubMed
  • 3. Veitch AM, Baglin TP, Gershlick AH, et al. Guidelines for the management of anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy in patients undergoing endoscopic procedures. Gut 2008;57:1322–1329.ArticlePubMed
  • 4. Boustière C, Veitch A, Vanbiervliet G, et al. Endoscopy and antiplatelet agents. European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Guideline. Endoscopy 2011;43:445–461.ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 5. Heldwein W, Dollhopf M, Rösch T, et al. The Munich Polypectomy Study (MUPS): prospective analysis of complications and risk factors in 4000 colonic snare polypectomies. Endoscopy 2005;37:1116–1122.ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 6. Oda I, Gotoda T, Hamanaka H, et al. Endoscopic submucosal dissection for early gastric cancer: technical feasibility, operation time and complications from a large consecutive series. Dig Endosc 2005;17:54–58.Article
  • 7. Takizawa K, Oda I, Gotoda T, et al. Routine coagulation of visible vessels may prevent delayed bleeding after endoscopic submucosal dissection: an analysis of risk factors. Endoscopy 2008;40:179–183.ArticlePubMed
  • 8. Armstrong MJ, Gronseth G, Anderson DC, et al. Summary of evidence-based guideline: periprocedural management of antithrombotic medications in patients with ischemic cerebrovascular disease: report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2013;80:2065–2069.ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 9. Gage BF, Waterman AD, Shannon W, Boechler M, Rich MW, Radford MJ. Validation of clinical classification schemes for predicting stroke: results from the National Registry of Atrial Fibrillation. JAMA 2001;285:2864–2870.ArticlePubMed
  • 10. Cannegieter SC, Rosendaal FR, Briët E. Thromboembolic and bleeding complications in patients with mechanical heart valve prostheses. Circulation 1994;89:635–641.ArticlePubMed
  • 11. Hering D, Piper C, Bergemann R, et al. Thromboembolic and bleeding complications following St. Jude Medical valve replacement: results of the German Experience With Low-Intensity Anticoagulation Study. Chest 2005;127:53–59.ArticlePubMed
  • 12. Douketis JD, Spyropoulos AC, Spencer FA, et al. Perioperative management of antithrombotic therapy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012;141(2 Suppl):e326S–e350S.ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 13. Levine GN, Bates ER, Blankenship JC, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA/SCAI Guideline for Percutaneous Coronary Intervention: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions. Circulation 2011;124:e574–e651.ArticlePubMed
  • 14. Grines CL, Bonow RO, Casey DE Jr, et al. Prevention of premature discontinuation of dual antiplatelet therapy in patients with coronary artery stents: a science advisory from the American Heart Association, American College of Cardiology, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, American College of Surgeons, and American Dental Association, with representation from the American College of Physicians. Circulation 2007;115:813–818.ArticlePubMed
  • 15. Holmes DR Jr, Dehmer GJ, Kaul S, Leifer D, O'Gara PT, Stein CM. ACCF/AHA clopidogrel clinical alert: approaches to the FDA "boxed warning": a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on clinical expert consensus documents and the American Heart Association endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010;56:321–341.ArticlePubMed
  • 16. Kleiman NS. Grabbing the horns of a dilemma: the duration of dual antiplatelet therapy after stent implantation. Circulation 2012;125:1967–1970.ArticlePubMed
  • 17. Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Rowlingson JC, et al. Regional anesthesia in the patient receiving antithrombotic or thrombolytic therapy: American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine Evidence-Based Guidelines (Third Edition). Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010;35:64–101.ArticlePubMed
  • 18. Kearon C, Hirsh J. Management of anticoagulation before and after elective surgery. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1506–1511.ArticlePubMed
  • 19. Schulman S, Elbazi R, Zondag M, O'Donnell M. Clinical factors influencing normalization of prothrombin time after stopping warfarin: a retrospective cohort study. Thromb J 2008;6:15.ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 20. Eikelboom JW, Hirsh J, Spencer FA, Baglin TP, Weitz JI. Antiplatelet drugs: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012;141(2 Suppl):e89S–e119S.ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 21. Baron TH, Kamath PS, McBane RD. Management of antithrombotic therapy in patients undergoing invasive procedures. N Engl J Med 2013;368:2113–2124.ArticlePubMed
Table 1
Categories of Procedures according to Degree of Bleeding Risk
ce-47-320-i001.jpg

Adapted from ASGE Standards of Practice Committee et al. Gastrointest Endosc 2009;70:1060-1070, with permission from Elsevier,2 and Veitch et al. Gut 2008;57:1322-1329, with permission from BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.3

ERCP, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography; EUS, endoscopic ultrasonography; FNA, fine needle aspiration, PEG, percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy.

Table 2
Categories of Conditions according to Degree of Risk for Thromboembolic Event
ce-47-320-i002.jpg

Adapted from ASGE Standards of Practice Committee et al. Gastrointest Endosc 2009;70:1060-1070, with permission from Elsevier,2 and Veitch et al. Gut 2008;57:1322-1329, with permission from BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.3

Figure & Data

REFERENCES

    Citations

    Citations to this article as recorded by  
    • Clinical Efficacy of Endoscopic Submucosal Dissection for the Treatment of Duodenal Lesions in Terms of Operative Technique and Management of Complications
      Bo Yan, Xiangjie Li, Yuqing Qiao, Linxiang Zhou, Lei Shen
      Journal of Laparoendoscopic & Advanced Surgical Techniques.2022; 32(7): 787.     CrossRef

    • PubReader PubReader
    • ePub LinkePub Link
    • Cite
      CITE
      export Copy Download
      Close
      Download Citation
      Download a citation file in RIS format that can be imported by all major citation management software, including EndNote, ProCite, RefWorks, and Reference Manager.
      Format:
      • RIS — For EndNote, ProCite, RefWorks, and most other reference management software
      • BibTeX — For JabRef, BibDesk, and other BibTeX-specific software
      Include:
      • Citation for the content below
      Management of Antithrombotic Therapy for Gastroenterological Endoscopy from a Cardio-Cerebrovascular Physician's Point of View
      Clin Endosc. 2014;47(4):320-323.   Published online July 28, 2014
      DOI: https://doi.org/10.5946/ce.2014.47.4.320
      Close
    • XML DownloadXML Download
    Management of Antithrombotic Therapy for Gastroenterological Endoscopy from a Cardio-Cerebrovascular Physician's Point of View
    Management of Antithrombotic Therapy for Gastroenterological Endoscopy from a Cardio-Cerebrovascular Physician's Point of View

    Categories of Procedures according to Degree of Bleeding Risk

    Adapted from ASGE Standards of Practice Committee et al. Gastrointest Endosc 2009;70:1060-1070, with permission from Elsevier,2 and Veitch et al. Gut 2008;57:1322-1329, with permission from BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.3

    ERCP, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography; EUS, endoscopic ultrasonography; FNA, fine needle aspiration, PEG, percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy.

    Categories of Conditions according to Degree of Risk for Thromboembolic Event

    Adapted from ASGE Standards of Practice Committee et al. Gastrointest Endosc 2009;70:1060-1070, with permission from Elsevier,2 and Veitch et al. Gut 2008;57:1322-1329, with permission from BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.3
    Table 1 Categories of Procedures according to Degree of Bleeding Risk

    Adapted from ASGE Standards of Practice Committee et al. Gastrointest Endosc 2009;70:1060-1070, with permission from Elsevier,2 and Veitch et al. Gut 2008;57:1322-1329, with permission from BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.3

    ERCP, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography; EUS, endoscopic ultrasonography; FNA, fine needle aspiration, PEG, percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy.

    Table 2 Categories of Conditions according to Degree of Risk for Thromboembolic Event

    Adapted from ASGE Standards of Practice Committee et al. Gastrointest Endosc 2009;70:1060-1070, with permission from Elsevier,2 and Veitch et al. Gut 2008;57:1322-1329, with permission from BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.3

    Table 1

    Table 2

    Clin Endosc : Clinical Endoscopy Twitter Facebook
    © Korean Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy.
    Close layer
    TOP